Foot and Mouth Disease: Causes, Symptoms, Vaccination and Control Measures
- Vet. Ali Kemal DÖNMEZ
- 7 hours ago
- 15 min read
What Is Foot and Mouth Disease?
Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals, including cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, buffalo, deer, and several wildlife species. The disease is caused by the Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV), a member of the Picornaviridae family.
FMD is considered one of the most economically important livestock diseases worldwide because it spreads rapidly through farms and animal populations. Outbreaks can lead to severe production losses, trade restrictions, quarantine measures, and costly eradication programs.
The virus can be transmitted through direct animal contact, contaminated equipment, vehicles, feed, water, clothing, and even through the air under favorable environmental conditions. Although adult animals rarely die from the disease, productivity may decline dramatically due to weight loss, reduced milk production, fertility problems, and prolonged recovery periods.
Typical lesions include painful blisters (vesicles) and ulcers in the mouth, tongue, gums, nose, teats, and around the hooves. These lesions often cause excessive salivation, difficulty eating, lameness, and reduced performance.
Early detection and rapid biosecurity measures are essential because even a single infected animal can trigger a large-scale outbreak within a short period.
Foot and Mouth Disease Symptoms and Possible Conditions Table
Symptom | Possible Disease/Condition | Explanation |
Excessive drooling or foamy saliva | Foot and Mouth Disease | Painful oral blisters make swallowing difficult and increase saliva production. |
Blisters on the tongue and mouth | Foot and Mouth Disease | One of the most characteristic signs of FMD infection. |
Sudden lameness | Foot and Mouth Disease | Lesions around the hooves cause significant pain while walking. |
Reduced feed intake | Foot and Mouth Disease, Oral Injury | Animals avoid eating because mouth ulcers are painful. |
Fever | Foot and Mouth Disease, Various Infections | Usually appears during the early stage of infection before visible lesions develop. |
Milk production drop | Foot and Mouth Disease | Common in dairy cattle and may persist after recovery. |
Blisters on teats | Foot and Mouth Disease | Vesicles may develop on the udder and teats, causing discomfort during milking. |
Weight loss | Foot and Mouth Disease | Reduced appetite and stress contribute to body condition loss. |
Reluctance to move | Foot and Mouth Disease, Hoof Disorders | Painful hoof lesions often result in reduced mobility. |
Sudden deaths in young animals | Foot and Mouth Disease | Viral myocarditis may occur in calves, lambs, and kids even without severe oral lesions. |
Because several diseases can cause oral lesions and lameness, laboratory confirmation is required whenever Foot and Mouth Disease is suspected. Rapid diagnosis is critical to prevent further spread and to allow veterinary authorities to implement appropriate control measures.
Types of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus
Foot and Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) exists in several genetically distinct serotypes. Immunity against one serotype does not provide reliable protection against the others, which makes disease control and vaccination programs more challenging.
The seven recognized FMDV serotypes are:
Serotype | Distribution | Importance |
O | Worldwide | Responsible for the majority of recent global outbreaks. |
A | Worldwide | Frequently associated with livestock epidemics. |
C | Rare | Not detected in many regions for years but remains historically important. |
SAT 1 | Primarily Africa | Common in wildlife and livestock populations. |
SAT 2 | Primarily Africa | Often associated with severe outbreaks. |
SAT 3 | Primarily Africa | Less common but epidemiologically significant. |
Asia 1 | Asia and surrounding regions | Mainly affects Asian livestock populations. |
Because vaccines must closely match circulating strains, veterinary authorities continuously monitor viral variants and update vaccination strategies when necessary.
Causes and Transmission of Foot and Mouth Disease
Foot and Mouth Disease is caused by infection with the Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus. The virus is extremely contagious and can spread rapidly between susceptible animals, especially in densely populated farming regions.
Common routes of transmission include:
Direct Animal Contact
Healthy animals can become infected after contact with saliva, nasal secretions, milk, feces, urine, or lesions from infected animals. Even animals that appear clinically normal may spread the virus during early stages of infection.
Airborne Transmission
Under favorable weather conditions, FMDV can travel considerable distances through the air. This is one reason why outbreaks can sometimes affect multiple farms within a region.
Contaminated Equipment and Vehicles
Feed trucks, livestock trailers, milking equipment, boots, clothing, and farm tools can carry infectious viral particles from one location to another if proper disinfection procedures are not followed.
Feed and Water Contamination
The virus may survive in contaminated feed, animal products, or water sources, creating additional opportunities for transmission.
Animal Movement
Transporting infected livestock is one of the most important factors contributing to regional and international spread. For this reason, movement restrictions are commonly implemented during outbreaks.
Wildlife Reservoirs
Certain wildlife species can become infected and may contribute to disease persistence in some regions, making eradication efforts more difficult.
Several factors increase the risk of outbreaks:
High livestock density.
Frequent animal trading.
Poor farm biosecurity.
Inadequate quarantine procedures.
Insufficient vaccination coverage.
Delayed disease reporting.
Understanding how the virus spreads is critical because prevention remains far more effective and economical than controlling a large-scale outbreak after it has become established.
Cost of Foot and Mouth Disease Prevention and Control
The financial impact of Foot and Mouth Disease can vary significantly depending on herd size, country regulations, vaccination policies, and outbreak severity. While preventive measures require ongoing investment, they are generally far less expensive than managing an active outbreak.
Control Measure | Estimated Cost (EU) | Estimated Cost (US) |
Routine vaccination per animal | €1–€5 per dose | $1–$6 per dose |
Farm biosecurity improvements | €500–€10,000+ | $550–$11,000+ |
Quarantine facilities | €1,000–€20,000+ | $1,100–$22,000+ |
Disinfection programs | €100–€5,000+ annually | $110–$5,500+ annually |
Veterinary inspections and testing | €50–€500+ per visit | $55–$550+ per visit |
Outbreak-related production losses | Thousands to millions of euros | Thousands to millions of dollars |
Beyond direct costs, outbreaks may lead to trade restrictions, livestock movement bans, reduced milk production, fertility losses, and long-term economic consequences for farmers and agricultural industries.
Livestock Breeds Susceptible to Foot and Mouth Disease
All cloven-hoofed animals are considered susceptible to Foot and Mouth Disease. However, some species may show more severe clinical signs or play a larger role in virus transmission.
Breed/Species | Description | Risk Level |
Holstein Cattle | Highly susceptible dairy cattle with significant production losses during outbreaks. | High |
Jersey Cattle | Susceptible to infection and milk yield reduction. | High |
Angus Cattle | Frequently affected in endemic regions. | High |
Hereford Cattle | Susceptible to both infection and economic losses. | High |
Simmental Cattle | Commonly affected where FMD circulates. | High |
Sheep | Often show mild signs but can silently spread infection. | High |
Goats | May develop less obvious clinical signs, complicating detection. | High |
Domestic Pigs | Major amplifiers of the virus and can release large amounts of infectious particles. | High |
Water Buffalo | Susceptible and important in endemic areas. | High |
Deer Species | Can become infected and contribute to disease spread in some regions. | Moderate |
Unlike many livestock diseases, susceptibility is primarily determined by species rather than breed. Therefore, all susceptible livestock should be included in surveillance, vaccination, and biosecurity programs.
The next sections will cover:
Clinical Signs and Symptoms of Foot and Mouth Disease
Diagnosis of Foot and Mouth Disease
These sections are particularly important because early recognition and laboratory confirmation are critical for controlling outbreaks.
Clinical Signs and Symptoms of Foot and Mouth Disease
The incubation period of Foot and Mouth Disease typically ranges from 2 to 14 days, depending on the viral strain, infectious dose, and animal species. Clinical signs often begin with fever and reduced appetite before the characteristic lesions become visible.
Early Clinical Signs
During the first stage of infection, affected animals may develop:
Sudden fever.
Depression and lethargy.
Reduced feed intake.
Reluctance to move.
Decreased milk production.
Mild lameness.
These signs are often non-specific and may resemble other infectious diseases.
Oral Lesions
As the disease progresses, painful vesicles (blisters) develop on:
The tongue.
Gums.
Dental pad.
Lips.
Inner cheeks.
Nasal tissues.
These vesicles eventually rupture, leaving painful ulcers that interfere with eating and drinking.
Hoof Lesions
Blisters may also form around:
The coronary band.
Interdigital spaces.
Heel bulbs.
Animals frequently become lame and may spend more time lying down due to pain.
Udder and Teat Lesions
In dairy animals, vesicles can appear on:
Teats.
Udder skin.
These lesions may complicate milking and increase the risk of secondary infections.
Species Differences
Cattle
Cattle typically show obvious signs, including excessive salivation, oral ulcers, fever, and significant reductions in milk production.
Sheep
Sheep often develop milder clinical signs. Lameness may be the most noticeable symptom, making outbreaks harder to detect.
Goats
Goats may exhibit subtle symptoms and can sometimes remain undiagnosed during the early stages of infection.
Pigs
Pigs often develop severe foot lesions and pronounced lameness. They are also important amplifiers of the virus during outbreaks.
Signs in Young Animals
Calves, lambs, kids, and piglets may develop viral myocarditis, commonly referred to as "tiger heart disease." In these cases, sudden death can occur even when oral lesions are minimal or absent.
Diagnosis of Foot and Mouth Disease
Because Foot and Mouth Disease has major economic and regulatory consequences, a diagnosis should never be based solely on clinical signs. Laboratory confirmation is essential.
Clinical Examination
Veterinarians often suspect FMD when they observe:
Fever.
Excessive salivation.
Oral vesicles.
Hoof lesions.
Sudden lameness affecting multiple animals.
However, several diseases can produce similar symptoms.
Sample Collection
Diagnostic samples may include:
Vesicular fluid.
Vesicle epithelium.
Oral swabs.
Nasal swabs.
Blood samples.
Tissue samples from affected animals.
Samples must be collected and transported according to national veterinary regulations.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Real-time PCR is one of the most widely used diagnostic methods because it can rapidly detect viral genetic material with high sensitivity and specificity.
Virus Isolation
Specialized laboratories may isolate the virus to confirm infection and identify the specific serotype involved in the outbreak.
Serological Testing
Serological tests help determine whether animals have been exposed to the virus or vaccinated previously.
Common methods include:
ELISA testing.
Virus neutralization tests.
Antibody screening programs.
Differential Diagnosis
Several diseases can resemble Foot and Mouth Disease and must be ruled out:
Disease | Similar Signs |
Vesicular Stomatitis | Oral and hoof lesions |
Swine Vesicular Disease | Vesicles and lameness |
Vesicular Exanthema of Swine | Similar lesions in pigs |
Bovine Viral Diarrhea (mucosal disease) | Oral ulceration |
Bluetongue Disease | Oral lesions and fever |
Traumatic Oral Injuries | Mouth ulcers without viral infection |
Importance of Rapid Reporting
FMD is a notifiable disease in many countries. Any suspected case should be reported immediately to veterinary authorities because rapid containment measures can significantly reduce the scale and impact of an outbreak.
Treatment and Supportive Care for Foot and Mouth Disease
There is currently no specific antiviral treatment capable of eliminating the Foot and Mouth Disease Virus from infected animals. Management primarily focuses on supportive care, reducing suffering, preventing secondary infections, and limiting disease spread.
Isolation of Affected Animals
Animals showing clinical signs should be separated from healthy livestock immediately. Isolation helps reduce transmission and facilitates monitoring.
Fluid and Nutritional Support
Painful oral lesions often cause animals to stop eating and drink less water. Supportive management may include:
Easy-to-consume soft feed.
High-quality forage.
Adequate water access.
Electrolyte supplementation when necessary.
Pain Management
Veterinarians may use approved anti-inflammatory medications to reduce:
Fever.
Pain.
Lameness.
Discomfort associated with oral and hoof lesions.
Prevention of Secondary Infections
Damaged tissues can become infected by bacteria. Depending on local regulations and veterinary assessment, treatment may include management of secondary bacterial complications.
Hoof and Wound Care
Ruptured vesicles around the feet can increase the risk of secondary infections and severe lameness. Proper hygiene and clean housing conditions are essential during recovery.
Monitoring Recovery
Most adult animals recover within several weeks, although production losses may persist much longer.
Vaccination Strategies for Foot and Mouth Disease
Vaccination is one of the most important tools for controlling Foot and Mouth Disease in endemic regions and during outbreak response programs.
Why Vaccination Is Important
Vaccination helps:
Reduce clinical disease.
Lower viral shedding.
Decrease transmission rates.
Protect valuable livestock populations.
Minimize economic losses.
However, vaccination alone cannot completely eliminate disease without strong biosecurity measures.
Matching Vaccines to Circulating Strains
Because FMDV exists in multiple serotypes and variants, vaccines must closely match the strains circulating within a region.
A vaccine providing protection against one serotype may offer little or no protection against another.
Routine Vaccination Programs
Countries where FMD is endemic often implement routine vaccination schedules for:
Sheep.
Goats.
Buffalo.
Other susceptible livestock.
Vaccination intervals vary depending on:
Vaccine type.
Regional disease risk.
National regulations.
Livestock species.
Emergency Vaccination
During outbreaks, veterinary authorities may initiate emergency vaccination campaigns to rapidly reduce disease spread and protect nearby farms.
Limitations of Vaccination
Although highly valuable, vaccination has limitations:
Protection is not always lifelong.
Booster doses are often required.
Vaccine efficacy depends on strain matching.
Vaccination does not replace biosecurity.
Vaccinated animals may still become infected under certain circumstances.
Vaccination and Disease Eradication
Many successful control programs combine:
Vaccination.
Movement restrictions.
Surveillance.
Testing.
Rapid outbreak reporting.
Strict farm biosecurity.
This integrated approach has helped several countries maintain or regain Foot and Mouth Disease-free status.
The next sections will cover:
Complications and Prognosis of Foot and Mouth Disease
Farm Biosecurity, Home Care and Prevention
These topics are particularly important because long-term economic losses often result from complications and inadequate outbreak prevention measures rather than from the initial infection itself.
Complications and Prognosis of Foot and Mouth Disease
The prognosis of Foot and Mouth Disease varies depending on the animal's age, species, overall health status, and the severity of the outbreak. While most adult animals survive the infection, the disease can cause significant long-term production losses and economic damage.
Common Complications
Secondary Bacterial Infections
Open lesions in the mouth, feet, and teats create opportunities for bacterial invasion. These infections may prolong recovery and worsen clinical signs.
Severe Weight Loss
Animals often reduce feed intake because of painful oral ulcers. Prolonged anorexia can lead to substantial weight loss and reduced productivity.
Chronic Lameness
Some animals continue to experience hoof damage and mobility problems even after the virus has been eliminated.
Reduced Milk Production
Dairy cattle frequently experience significant drops in milk yield. In some cases, production may not fully return to pre-infection levels.
Reproductive Problems
Severe outbreaks may contribute to:
Reduced fertility.
Delayed breeding performance.
Increased reproductive losses.
Myocarditis in Young Animals
Calves, lambs, kids, and piglets are at the highest risk of viral myocarditis. Mortality rates can be significantly higher in young animals than in adults.
Carrier State
Certain recovered ruminants may carry viral particles in the pharyngeal region for extended periods. The epidemiological significance of these carrier animals continues to be studied in disease control programs.
Prognosis
Animal Group | Prognosis |
Healthy adult cattle | Generally good |
Healthy adult sheep | Generally good |
Healthy adult goats | Generally good |
Adult pigs | Fair to good |
Calves | Guarded |
Lambs and kids | Guarded |
Animals with severe complications | Variable |
Although mortality in adults is usually low, the economic consequences of an outbreak can remain substantial for months or even years.
Farm Biosecurity, Home Care and Prevention
Preventing Foot and Mouth Disease is far more effective than attempting to control an established outbreak. Strong biosecurity programs are considered the foundation of disease prevention.
Control Animal Movement
Newly purchased animals should be quarantined before joining the main herd. During outbreaks, movement restrictions are among the most effective tools for reducing disease spread.
Maintain Strict Farm Hygiene
Regular cleaning and disinfection should be performed on:
Livestock housing.
Feeding equipment.
Water systems.
Vehicles.
Farm tools.
Loading areas.
Limit Farm Visitors
Visitors, veterinarians, contractors, and delivery personnel can unintentionally introduce infectious agents onto farms. Access should be controlled whenever possible.
Disinfect Vehicles and Equipment
Livestock trailers and transport vehicles should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected after each use.
Monitor Animals Daily
Early detection remains critical. Farmers should watch for:
Excessive drooling.
Lameness.
Oral lesions.
Sudden decreases in feed intake.
Unexplained drops in milk production.
Follow Vaccination Programs
Where vaccination is recommended by veterinary authorities, maintaining adequate vaccine coverage significantly reduces disease risk.
Report Suspected Cases Immediately
Rapid reporting allows veterinary authorities to:
Confirm infection quickly.
Implement quarantine measures.
Trace animal movements.
Protect neighboring farms.
Biosecurity Checklist
Biosecurity Measure | Importance |
Quarantine new animals | Very High |
Vaccination programs | Very High |
Daily herd monitoring | Very High |
Equipment disinfection | High |
Vehicle sanitation | High |
Visitor control | High |
Record keeping | Moderate |
Wildlife management | Moderate |
Effective prevention requires a combination of vaccination, surveillance, movement control, and strong farm management practices. No single measure provides complete protection on its own.
Responsibilities of Livestock Owners During a Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreak
Foot and Mouth Disease outbreaks require rapid cooperation between livestock owners, veterinarians, and regulatory authorities. Delays in reporting or implementing control measures can significantly increase the spread of infection and the resulting economic losses.
Recognize and Report Suspicious Signs
Farmers should immediately contact a veterinarian if animals develop:
Excessive salivation.
Oral blisters or ulcers.
Sudden lameness.
Fever affecting multiple animals.
Unexplained reductions in milk production.
Early reporting is one of the most important factors in successful outbreak containment.
Restrict Animal Movement
No animals should enter or leave the farm until veterinary authorities determine that movement is safe. Uncontrolled transport is a major cause of disease spread between regions.
Cooperate With Veterinary Authorities
During outbreaks, authorities may implement:
Quarantine orders.
Disease surveillance programs.
Sample collection.
Movement restrictions.
Emergency vaccination campaigns.
Full cooperation helps reduce the duration and impact of control measures.
Maintain Accurate Records
Livestock owners should keep records of:
Animal purchases.
Animal sales.
Transport activities.
Visitor logs.
Vaccination history.
Accurate records improve outbreak tracing and epidemiological investigations.
Strengthen Biosecurity Measures
Additional precautions may include:
Restricting visitors.
Installing disinfection points.
Separating affected groups.
Increasing cleaning frequency.
Monitoring animals multiple times daily.
Educate Farm Personnel
All workers should understand:
Clinical signs of FMD.
Biosecurity protocols.
Reporting procedures.
Cleaning and disinfection requirements.
Training farm personnel can significantly reduce outbreak-related risks.
Differences Between Foot and Mouth Disease in Cattle, Sheep, Goats and Pigs
Although Foot and Mouth Disease affects all cloven-hoofed livestock species, clinical presentation and epidemiological significance vary between species.
Species | Typical Signs | Disease Severity | Role in Transmission |
Cattle | Fever, excessive salivation, oral lesions, lameness, milk loss | Moderate to severe | Important source of infection |
Sheep | Mild oral lesions, subtle lameness | Usually mild | Often difficult to detect, may spread infection unnoticed |
Goats | Mild clinical signs, reduced appetite | Usually mild | Can contribute to silent transmission |
Pigs | Severe foot lesions, marked lameness | Often severe clinically | Major virus amplifiers |
Buffalo | Similar to cattle | Moderate | Important in endemic regions |
Cattle
Cattle often display the classic signs associated with FMD. Excessive drooling and oral ulcers are usually obvious, making diagnosis easier than in some other species.
Sheep
Sheep may show very mild disease. Because lesions are sometimes difficult to detect, infected flocks can remain unnoticed and contribute to regional spread.
Goats
Clinical signs in goats are often subtle. Reduced appetite and mild lameness may be the only visible indicators of infection.
Pigs
Pigs play a unique epidemiological role because they can produce large quantities of virus. During outbreaks, infected pigs may significantly increase environmental contamination and disease transmission.
Buffalo
Water buffalo are susceptible to infection and may act as important reservoir hosts in certain endemic regions.
Frequently Asked Questions About Foot and Mouth Disease
What is Foot and Mouth Disease?
Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, buffalo, and deer. It causes fever, painful blisters, mouth ulcers, lameness, and significant production losses.
Is Foot and Mouth Disease the same as Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease in humans?
No. Foot and Mouth Disease in livestock is caused by the Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV), while Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease in humans is caused by enteroviruses such as Coxsackievirus. They are completely different diseases.
Which animals can get Foot and Mouth Disease?
The disease primarily affects cloven-hoofed animals, including:
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Pigs
Buffalo
Deer
Antelope and other susceptible wildlife species
Horses, dogs, and cats are generally not considered susceptible to Foot and Mouth Disease.
How does Foot and Mouth Disease spread?
The virus can spread through:
Direct contact with infected animals
Saliva and nasal secretions
Milk, urine, and feces
Contaminated feed and water
Farm equipment and vehicles
Clothing and footwear
Airborne transmission under favorable conditions
What are the first signs of Foot and Mouth Disease?
Early symptoms commonly include:
Fever
Reduced appetite
Excessive salivation
Reluctance to move
Sudden drop in milk production
Mild lameness
Blisters and ulcers usually appear shortly afterward.
What do Foot and Mouth Disease lesions look like?
Typical lesions appear as fluid-filled blisters that later rupture and form painful ulcers. They commonly develop on:
Tongue
Lips
Gums
Mouth lining
Teats
Hooves and feet
Can Foot and Mouth Disease kill animals?
Adult animals usually survive the infection, but young animals may die from viral myocarditis. Significant economic losses often result from reduced productivity rather than high adult mortality.
Why are pigs important during outbreaks?
Pigs can produce and release large amounts of virus into the environment, making them important amplifiers of infection during outbreaks.
How long does the Foot and Mouth Disease virus survive in the environment?
The survival time depends on environmental conditions. The virus may survive:
Days to weeks on equipment
Weeks in contaminated water
Weeks in manure and organic material
Longer in cool and moist environments
Can recovered animals continue carrying the virus?
Some recovered ruminants may become carriers and harbor viral particles in the pharyngeal region for extended periods. The significance of carrier animals varies depending on disease control programs and regional regulations.
Is there a cure for Foot and Mouth Disease?
There is no specific antiviral cure. Treatment focuses on supportive care, pain management, hydration, nutrition, and prevention of secondary infections.
Can vaccination prevent Foot and Mouth Disease?
Vaccination is one of the most effective control measures available. However, vaccine effectiveness depends on matching the vaccine to the circulating viral strain and maintaining proper vaccination schedules.
How is Foot and Mouth Disease diagnosed?
Diagnosis typically involves:
Clinical examination
PCR testing
Virus isolation
Serological testing
Laboratory confirmation by accredited veterinary laboratories
Why must suspected cases be reported immediately?
Foot and Mouth Disease is a notifiable disease in many countries. Early reporting allows authorities to:
Confirm infection rapidly
Implement quarantine measures
Restrict animal movement
Reduce regional spread
What is the economic impact of Foot and Mouth Disease?
The disease can cause:
Reduced milk production
Weight loss
Fertility problems
Trade restrictions
Quarantine costs
Vaccination expenses
Large-scale financial losses for farms and national livestock industries
Can wildlife spread Foot and Mouth Disease?
Certain wildlife species can become infected and may contribute to disease persistence and transmission in some regions.
What biosecurity measures help prevent Foot and Mouth Disease?
Key prevention strategies include:
Vaccination programs
Quarantine of new animals
Equipment disinfection
Vehicle sanitation
Visitor control
Daily herd monitoring
Rapid reporting of suspicious signs
What should a farmer do if Foot and Mouth Disease is suspected?
The farmer should:
Isolate affected animals.
Stop animal movements immediately.
Contact a veterinarian.
Notify relevant authorities if required.
Strengthen farm biosecurity measures.
Follow official outbreak-control instructions.
Can Foot and Mouth Disease affect milk production?
Yes. Dairy cattle often experience significant reductions in milk yield during infection, and some animals may never fully return to their previous production levels.
Why is Foot and Mouth Disease considered one of the world's most important livestock diseases?
Because it spreads extremely quickly, affects multiple livestock species, causes major economic losses, disrupts international trade, and requires extensive resources for control and eradication.
Keywords
foot and mouth disease, foot and mouth disease symptoms, foot and mouth disease vaccine, livestock diseases, foot and mouth disease prevention
Sources
Source | Link |
World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) | |
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) | |
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) | |
Centers for Food Security and Public Health (CFSPH) | |
Merck Veterinary Manual | |
Mersin VetLife Veterinary Clinic |
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